Committee on Public Information, Americas WWI Propaganda Agency

The Committee on Public Information was a government agency created during World War I to distribute information intended to influence public opinion to inspire support for Americas entry in the war. The organization was essentially a propaganda arm of the federal government, and was presented to the public and the Congress as a reasonable alternative to government censorship of war news. The administration of Woodrow Wilson believed a government office dedicated to providing favorable publicity for the cause of entering the war was necessary. Americans had never sent an army to Europe. And joining the war on the side of Britain and France was a concept that needed to be sold to the public the way an ordinary consumer product might be sold. Key Takeaways: Committee on Public Information Government propaganda agency was created to convince American public of the necessity of the U.S. entering World War I.Public and Congress believed that the CPI would ensure no censorship of the press, and that reliable information would be provided.Agency provided tens of thousands of public speakers, arranged events to sell bonds and promote the war, created posters, and published booklets.Following the war there was a backlash against the agency, and excesses of war fervor were blamed on it. In its few years of operation, the Committee on Public Information (CPI) fed material to newspapers and magazines, commissioned advertising campaigns, and produced propaganda posters. It even arranged for thousands of public speakers to appear all over the country, making the case for Americans to fight in Europe. Overcoming Skepticism A rationale for creating the CPI, as it became known, was rooted in controversies which arose in 1916, when the U.S. government was becoming increasingly concerned with suspected spies and saboteurs. Woodrow Wilson’s attorney general, Thomas Gregory, proposed controlling the flow of information by censoring the press. Congress resisted that idea, as did newspaper publishers and members of the public. In early 1917, with the issue of censoring the press still being discussed, a magazine writer with a reputation as a crusading muckraker, George Creel, wrote to President Wilson. Creel proposed forming a committee that would provide information to the press. By having the press voluntarily agree to being fed information it would avoid censorship. Forming the Committee Creel’s idea found favor with Wilson and his top advisers, and by executive order Wilson created the committee. Besides Creel, the committee included the Secretary of State, Secretary of War, and Secretary of the Navy (what today would be the Defense Department was still split between Army and Navy departments). The formation of the committee was announced in April 1917. In a front-page story on April 15, 1917, the New York Times reported that the three cabinet secretaries on the committee had sent President Wilson a letter, which was made public. In the letter, the three officials said America’s great present needs are confidence, enthusiasm, and service. The letter also stated: While there is much that is properly secret in connection with the departments of the government, the total is small compared to the vast amounts of information that is right and proper for the people to have. George Creel, head of the United States Committee on Public Information. Time Life Pictures / Getty Images The letter also put forth the idea that two functions, identified as â€Å"censorship and publicity,† could happily coexist. George Creel would be the head of the committee, and could operate as a government censor, but it was assumed that the newspapers would happily accept war news as distributed by the government and would not have to be censored. CPI Key Messages and Techniques Creel quickly got to work. During 1917, the CPI organized a speaker’s bureau, which dispatched more than 20,000 individuals (some accounts give much higher numbers) to give short speeches supporting the American war effort. The speakers became known as The Four-Minute Men for the brevity of their speeches. The effort was successful, and gatherings from club meetings to public performances, soon featured a speaker talking of America’s duty to join the war in Europe. The New York Times, on December 30, 1917, published a story about the Four-Minute Men which indicated how common they had become: â€Å"The work of the Four-Minute Men has recently been extended to that representative speakers appear weekly in almost every moving picture house. The subject matter is prepared and the speaking is directed from Washington†¦ In each state there is an organization of Four-Minute Men. â€Å"The number of speakers now totals 20,000. Their topics are matters of national importance connected with the war plans of the government.† Creel believed the more lurid stories of German atrocities would not be believed by the public. So in the early months of his operation he directed speakers to focus on how Americans would be fighting to support freedom and democracy in the face of German brutishness. By 1918 the CPI was urging its speakers to make use of wartime atrocity stories. One writer, Raymond D. Fosdick, reported seeing a church congregation cheer after a speaker described German atrocities and called for the German leader, Kaiser Wilhelm, to be boiled in oil. On February 4, 1918, the New York Times published a brief news story headlined Bar Hymns of Hate. The article said the CPI had sent out instructions to its Four-Minute Men to tone down extreme material. If Your Soldiers Hit Poster by E.M. Gean Jackson, a film by the Committee on Public Information. swim ink 2 llc  /  Getty Images The CPI also distributed a number of printed materials, beginning with booklets that made the case for war. A news story in June 1917 described the proposed â€Å"War Booklets,† and noted that 20,000 copies would be sent to newspapers nationwide while the Government Printing Office would print many more for general circulation. The first of the War Booklets, titled How the War Came to America, consisted of 32 pages of dense prose. The lengthy essay explained how it had become impossible for America to remain neutral, and that was followed by reprints of speeches by President Wilson. The booklet was not terribly engaging, but it got the official message out in a handy package for public circulation. More lively material was put out by the CPI’s Division of Pictorial Publicity. Posters produced by the office encouraged Americans, through the use of vivid illustrations, to work in war-related industries and buy war bonds. Controversies In the summer of 1917, newspaper publishers were shocked to learn the government had directed the companies controlling transatlantic telegraph traffic to divert cables to the CPI in Washington to be reviewed before they were routed to the newspaper offices. After an outcry, the practice was stopped, but it would be cited as an example of how Creel and his organization had a tendency to overstep. Creel, for his part, was known for having a bad temper, and often put himself into controversies. He insulted members of Congress, and was forced to apologize. And no less a public figure than Theodore Roosevelt, the former president, criticized the CPI. He claimed the agency had been trying to punish newspapers which had supported America entering the conflict but then had become skeptical of the administration’s conduct of the war. In May 1918, the New York Times published a lengthy story headlined Creel as a Recurrent Storm Centre. The article detailed various controversies Creel had found himself in. A sub-headline read: How the Governments Publicity Man Has Shown Himself an Adept at Getting Into Hot Water With the Congress and the Public. During the war the American public did become infused with a patriotic fervor, and that led to excesses, such as German-Americans being targeted for harassment and even violence. Critics believed official CPI booklets such as German War Practices were incitements. But George Creel and other defenders of the CPI, pointing out that private groups were also distributing propaganda materials, insisted the less responsible organizations had inspired any bad behavior. Impact of the Committee’s Work Theres no question that Creel and his committee had an impact. Americans came around to support intervention in the war, and participated widely in supporting the effort. The success of war bond drives, known as the Liberty Loan, was often attributed to the CPI. Yet the CPI came in for much criticism after the war, when it became clear that information had been manipulated. In addition, the war fervor stoked by Creel and his committee may have had an influence on events following the war, particularly the Red Scare of 1919 and the notorious Palmer Raids. George Creel wrote a book, How We Advertised America, in 1920. He defended his work during the war, and he continued to work as a writer and political operative until his death in 1953. Sources: The Creel Committee. American Decades, edited by Judith S. Baughman, et al., vol. 2: 1910-1919, Gale, 2001. Gale Virtual Reference Library.George Creel. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 4, Gale, 2004, pp. 304-305. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

Uncle Toms Cabin Essays - 1311 Words

The novel Uncle Toms Cabin was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe and published in the United States in 1852. The novel depicted slavery as a moral evil and was the cause of much controversy at the time and long after. Uncle Toms Cabin outraged the South and received praise in the North. The publication of Uncle Toms Cabin was a major turning point for the United States which helped bring about the Civil War. Uncle Toms Cabin is said to have contributed to the Civil War because it brought the evils of slavery to the attention of Americans more vividly than any other book had done before (Harrietts Life). The novel made people who had never really thought about slavery realize how cruel and unjust it was. It also turned many†¦show more content†¦Uncle Toms Cabin was liked and disliked by many people in America. When Abraham Lincoln met Harriet Beecher Stowe after the beginning of the American Civil War, he supposedly said to her, So youre the little woman that wrote the book that started this Great War (Harriets Life). Lincoln was referring to Harriett Beecher Stowes book Uncle Toms Cabin. The quote implies that even the president of America had recognized and emphasized the impact of the novel on American Society as being the key cause to something as important as the Civil War. Harriet Beecher Stowe began writing Uncle Toms Cabin after the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed (Africans). The Fugitive Slave Act was an agreement between the north and the south that mainly said that if a runaway slave was caught in a free state, the runaway slave had to be returned to his or her owner (Uncle). She started to publish her story first as a series of stories in a newspaper called the Era, and when a publisher by the name of John Punchard Jewett read the article, he decided to publish it in book form (Harrietts Life). It became the best seller in the United States, England, Europe and Asia (Harrietts Life). The novel also began to be dramatized all over the world without the consent of Stowe. Uncle Toms Cabin not only became a success in book form but also in dramatic from. In this novel there are many families who end up getting torn apart from eachShow MoreRelatedUncle Toms Cabin829 Words   |  3 PagesUncle Toms Cabin, composed by Harriet Beecher Stowe and distributed in 1852, is an abolitionist-themed novel portraying the tragedies of bondage in the United States. It was immensely persuasive, prompted the formation of a basic pejorative, and was maybe even a reason for the Civil War. The story opens on a Kentucky ranch, home to the kind and venerated Uncle Tom, and the junior Eliza and her tyke. The story has a few significant characters, yet bases on Tom and Eliza. The managers of the homesteadRead MoreUncle Toms Cabin1320 Words   |  6 PagesIn the year 1852, nine short years before the civil war began in 1861, Harriet Stowe published arguably the most influential, groundbreaking, and controversial books in American history, Uncle Tom’s Cabin. The novel drew widespread criticism for the depiction of African Americans and slaves in a time when the United States of America was teetering on civil unrest due to the strength of the opposing views between the North and the South. The rapid expansion and growth the United States throughoutRead MoreUncle Toms Cabin Analysis1255 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Uncle Tom’s Cabin†, was written by Harriet Beecher Stowe and published in 1852. Stowe’s purpose for writing â€Å"Uncle Tom’s C abin†, was to depict the lives of African Americans that are enslaved to whites in hopes to bring about change and encourage abolition protest. Uncle Tom was portrayed as a Godly man with a good heart it was meant show that slaves are just as human as whites, and that slavery should be saw as inhumane and unjust. There are several important concepts that are alluded to, but slaveryRead More Morality in Uncle Toms Cabin1491 Words   |  6 Pages Morality in Uncle Toms Cabin nbsp; One Work Citednbsp;nbsp;nbsp; Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Toms Cabin in order to help bring the plight of southern slave workers into the spotlight in the north, aiding in its abolitionist movement. nbsp; nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; Harriet Beecher Stowe, in her work Uncle Toms Cabin, portrayed slaves as being the most morally correct beings, often times un-humanistically so, while also portraying many whites and slave-owners to be morallyRead MoreUncle Toms Cabin Essay690 Words   |  3 PagesUncle Toms Cabin Uncle Toms Cabin follows the lives of two slaves that live on a Kentucky plantation. Tom, a black slave, and a young mulatto woman named Eliza are under the ownership of Mr. Shelby. Tom is his most trusted slave, while Eliza is Mrs. Shelbys beloved servant, whom she has raised since she was a young girl. Mr. Shelby is a kind man, but is not very good with his finances. He is indebted to a slave trader by the name of Haley. The story begins with Haley givingRead MoreRacism in Uncle Toms Cabin1591 Words   |  7 PagesHarriet Beecher Stowes novel Uncle Toms Cabin was the defining piece of the time in which it was written. The book opened eyes in both the North and South to the cruelties that occurred in all forms of slavery, and held back nothing in exposing the complicity of non-slaveholders in the upholding of Americas peculiar institution. Then-president Abraham Lincoln himself attributed Stowes narrative to being a cause of the American Civil War. In such an influenti al tale that so powerfully points outRead MoreSlavery in Uncle Toms Cabin Essay478 Words   |  2 PagesSlavery in Uncle Toms Cabin Stowe presents slavery in the only way she knows how, by using the facts. Several sources of other works in American literature contrast on to how Stowe presents slavery in her novel Uncle Toms Cabin. The elements of slavery are driven through the reflections of theme, characterization, and setting to show that the way slavery is presented is not contradicting. Through the character of Mrs. Shelby, Stowe seems to use her opposition against slavery the mostRead MoreCritical Reflection of Uncle Tom’s Cabin2270 Words   |  10 PagesCritical Reflection of Uncle Tom’s Cabin August 14 2012 　　　　Christianity had an essential role in the abolition of slave trade in American Society. American Christianity impressively contributed to American Revolution (1775-1783) as well as Civil War (1861-1865) (Parfait 47). Even though, the role of Christianity in slavery remained abstruse as some Christians, especially from the Southern America supported slavery, its importance in anti-slavery struggle remained noteworthy. Slavery was generallyRead MoreThe Influence of the 1850s in Uncle Toms Cabin2754 Words   |  12 PagesThe Influence of the 1850s in Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin Despite heartbreaking family separations and struggles for antislavery Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin (1852) erupted into one of the greatest triumphs recorded in literary history (Downs 228), inspiring plays, pictures, poems, songs, souvenirs, and statues (Claybaugh 519). As Uncle Toms Cabin was being published in the National Era newspaper in forty weekly installments (x), it was received by southerners asRead MoreUncle Toms Cabin, by Harriet Beecher Stowe1144 Words   |  5 PagesUncle Tom’s Cabin has been explained as being a history of harmful acts towards Blacks in America for a period of a hundred and thirty years (Stowe, â€Å"Nineteenth†). 51).The book Uncle Tom’s Cabin was one of History’s favorite books (Stowe, â€Å"Nineteenth† 1). It talks about how Tom would do anything for the white man (Stowe, Uncle 1). The southerners did not give Harriet Beecher Stowe and credit for writing the book (Piacentino 1). Uncle Tom showed a lot of Christianity in this book, but the master

Austinmner Bowling Club Ltd.

Question: Discuss about the Austinmner Bowling Club Ltd. Answer: Introduction: Austinmner Bowling Club Ltd (the Club) was a company limited by guarantee and a registered club. It had 552 members containing 460 Social Members, 85 Bowling members and 7 Life Members as on May 31, 2007. The club started facing financial problems and an option for shutting down the bowling activities was considered. From June, 2007, there was a drop in number of membership renewal by the bowling and social members. The bowling activities closed in September 2007 and on October 22, 2007, the club advanced for voluntary administration. Mr. Russell was arranged as the administrator and at that time the membership stood at 384 members containing 326 Social Members, 52 Bowling Members and 6 Life Members. The administrator sought out different amalgamation plans but none proved successful. Finally, the Club went under liquidation and Mr. Russell was assigned as the official liquidator on December 11, 2007. Being the liquidator, he sold some of the assets of the Club and expected a surplus of $850,000. The case revolves around the distribution of this surplus. Relevant Laws Companies Act 1961 (NSW)- Section 16(5) Registered Clubs Act 1976 (NSW)- Sections 4, 30(1)(a), 30(9), 41J Corporations Act 2001- Section 231, 479(3), 511(1)(a), 511(1)(b) Actual Decision To decide on the distribution of the surplus amount, the judge of this case clarified a few points. The first point of discussion was the clarity on the definition of the word members. The Memorandum of Association of the Club (MOA) contained that in case of a surplus, it should be transferred to some institution(s) having similar or partly similar objectives as of the Club. The institution(s) has to be decided by the members of the Club. The MOA did not define the term members and also did not contain any subdivision of members into classes. The judge held that the MOA in no way held, which members can or cannot make the decision with regard to surplus. Since MOA could not clarify the matter, a reference to the Articles of association (AOA) was made. The AOA also was silent on which members are to take decision in case of a surplus. Though the AOA did contain provisions regarding members meeting and did not provide any other mode for decision making by the members other than a voting by the members. The counsel had referred to the Registered Club Act stating that the Social Members be considered as full members and that Social Members be qualified to vote in the elections of the regulating body of the Club. On this the judge held that the provisions of the Registered Club Act are not related to the case. In view of the clause 6 of MOA referred to by the counsel, the judge stated that the clauses did not give every member a right to engage in the determination of surplus. And that it would not be permissible for the Court to impose a plan or method for decision making by methods not stated in MOA. The judge was of the view that excluding the Social Members from engaging in the decision of surplus would be not unjustified. Even though the Social Members were liable to pay in case of winding up, the amount was just $2 which was less than ten times the annual fees of Bowling Members. He also held that the decision of including the Social Members in decision making process was a completely different matter. The AOA through its different clauses held that the Social Members could not be present at the meetings and vote at any of the meetings. And they could not be present and vote at the meeting where a decision on the utilization of the surplus had to be made. Providing relief to Mr. Russell, the final decision was made stating that the determination regarding the administration of the surplus had to be taken at a meeting. And that only the Bowling members and the Life members could attend such meeting. Conclusion To conclude, the decision of the judge in this case was reliant upon the clauses of AOA. The reason behind the reliance on AOA was the absence of related provisions in the MOA. By understanding the words of articles in the given case, the judge was able to give his verdict by disallowing the Social Members from attending the meetings where the decision about utilization of surplus had to be taken.

Israeli and US Counterintelligence and covert operations

Background Information Widely used definitions refer to counter intelligence as the collected information, and actions taken in defense against espionage and other intelligence activities, including sabotage or assassinations carried out by other states. It should be noted that these activities are similar in most settings, although glaring differences have been cited in methodologies adopted by various states. The leadership hierarchy and command execution techniques may also vary slightly to suit the agencies specifications (Davies, 2002).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Israeli and US Counterintelligence and Covert Operations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the past, most societies were mono ethnic, with rigid structures in place to ensure their conformity to nature. Most of them were characterized by cultural hierarchies, despite being cosmopolitan in nature. Some rulers established models based on oriental tyranny. All these domains were centralized systems of government with imperial centers of power. Intelligence collected in such realms was for the benefit of the king, who had no trust in his family or lieutenants. Provincial leaders were least trusted and viewed in the same light with principals of the surrounding chieftains. They used the information to identify and exterminate disquiet among the family members and his subjects (Godson, 2000). It also came in handy when they needed to influence the loyalty of their neighboring chiefs, their assistants or military commanding officers. It should be noted that these societies mentioned little about counterintelligence as applied in the modern society. Most of the information collected was consumed locally, with targets being persons in proximity with the leadership and foreign persons captured in that territory. Modern-day practices have evolved substantially as a result of technological advancement. Currently, agents ar e able to spy on their targets from the comfort of their offices. The advent of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and enhanced applications of information systems have facilitated this. It is commonplace that similar technology is available to foes; although, employing the same makes it easy to track down their locations due to beams emitted from the devices. With double agents in adversary agencies, essential information on weaponry, military and economic strategy among others can be collected and used effectively for security and to plan offence in case of combat (Godson, 2000). America It is commonplace that properly functional counter intelligence systems are requisite in the modern-day society. Taking an example of America in the course the cold war, complacency was the main undoing. All agencies tasked with ensuring security had been permeated by double agents. Normally, it is difficult to uncover their identity and that of their employer (Godson, 2000).Advertising Looking for research paper on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is suspected that established foes of America were joined by new adversaries during the infiltration. The aftermath saw momentous secrets being compromised to the great detriment of the populace. This information included government policies, military strategies, information on private citizens and much more. The introduction of counterintelligence is of immense importance to Americans since their shores have been invaded in addition, to threats on their allies and other citizens worldwide. These occurrences instigated a move by the government to establish a counter intelligence policy board, led by a counterintelligence executive. It draws membership from different departments in American leadership hierarchy. Some of these include the Justice Department (Federal Bureau of Investigation); Central Intelligence Agency; Homeland security; Dep artment of Defense; among others. The board is solely tasked with engaging both public and private sector elements to attend to threats posed by foreign operatives and groups, in addition, to protecting national secrets and methods employed in obtaining them. This is achieved by the provision of conduct guidance by counterintelligence programs and other government operations. All this can only be achieved with a presidential assent (Davies, 2002). The post 9/11era has ushered in an epoch where counter intelligence agencies have developed the ability to integrate their findings with national security matters. Legislation passed on the same in 2002 and 2004 further enhanced the turn around, charging the counterintelligence executive with the formulation of a strategy before availing information on implementation of the same to the president (Godson, 2000). Structure and Mandate There exists a national counterintelligence policy board, which is overseen by the national counterintellige nce executive. It draws its membership from the arms of government, which are essential for security and welfare of civilians. These departments are; Justice Department and the Federal Investigation Bureau; Defense, including the Joint Chiefs of Staff; Homeland Security and the Central Intelligence Agency, not forgetting the State and Energy departments. This board serves as the principal strategy creation body (Godson, 2000). The Director of National Intelligence and his counterpart in the Counterintelligence department will review this policy yearly, making adjustments as they deem fit. Pundits warn that constant change in the approach may be detrimental to the whole course, since consistency is essential.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Israeli and US Counterintelligence and Covert Operations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More After it had been noted that these institutions were acting individually, ca lls were made for the harmonization of their operations. This happened because it was difficult to manage the individual agencies when they worked against each other. Instances of redundancy, coupled with the overlapping of roles were commonplace and defined the order of operation among the agencies and their affiliates. After the counter productivity had been revealed publicly, measures to harmonize their operations were instituted. The move had several positives, since it also resulted in reduced expenditure due to data sharing (Sims Gerber, 2009). Agencies would share the information they had among themselves, and set out only when they lacked particular feeds (Sims Gerber, 2009). Division of labor was also introduced, with several agencies specializing in different aspects and stages of the procedure. It should not be forgotten that although their roles overlap at times, they have established a mode of operation that ensures an agency steps in only after another has exhausted all options at its disposal. Sometimes, agencies have undertaken parallel missions when faced with challenges. It was concluded that all counterintelligence agencies should synchronize their activities, operating as a unit when orchestrating offensive operations, or securing their agencies against infiltration. The most significant responsibility they are tasked with is securing the homeland and guarding the bureaus against permeation by a foreign representative. These adversaries include terrorist organizations and other rivals interested inn toppling American military and economic interests overseas (Davies, 2002). The agencies identify and classify the magnitude of threats. Forays will also be made into cyberspace, since they present unprecedented challenges due to the nations over reliance information systems. It is imperative to have a well protected information infrastructure, which is essential to guarantee all aspects of national security. Trusted persons are, therefore, ent rusted with investigatory roles, to establish their resources, strategies and modes of operation. All this will be carried out in addition, to establishing their identities and that of their collaborators. This will reveal their capabilities and limitations, thereby enabling the commencement of campaigns to neutralize their impact (Sims Gerber, 2009).Advertising Looking for research paper on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These agencies are required to defend the veracity of the American intelligence system. This will be achieved by the provision of reliable information to the government and its agencies. In order to preserve the effectiveness of the itinerary, it is obligatory to thwart infiltration at all levels. In order to initiate proper counter measures, the relevant forces need precise information on the artillery possessed by the adversary and their exact location (Davies, 2002). It should be remembered that no agency is capable of insuring itself against penetration, hence the need for cooperation among them. Recommendations will include mitigation measures that can be enforced to avert crises. Their knowledge of American operations has been propagated by openness and commendable transparency in the running of society. This can be countered by mastering their skills, in addition to finding out information they have and that which they do not. This can be used as leverage in frustrating their progress. It is noteworthy that the efficacy of these dealings is entirely reliant on America’s ability to infiltrate their agencies. Civic education forms an essential method of creating awareness. This agency will coordinate the dissemination of educative literature through the media. This will be carried out in both the print and electronic media after extensive consultation with the private sector and media owners. Academic institutions will also be incorporated into the scheme (Davies, 2002). With this knowledge, the amount of people used as soft targets by foreign bureaus will reduce considerably, making America a safer place to be. Summarily, American counterintelligence is largely run by internal agencies established in the constitution. Their roles are clearly defined by parliament; although most of them require parliamentary or presidential approval before they are executed. They rarely share intelligence with foreign agencies, unless it is necessary. In case, this happens they limit this pool to their most trusted allies. Americans are known to treat spies harshly, with overstretched jail sentences being their favored method. At times, they have been forced to trade these spies with others of American descent captured in other states performing the same roles (Sims Gerber, 2009). In spite of all this, the Director of National Intelligence has limited powers during formulation of the counterintelligence strategy, most of which are bureaucratic. Critics of the agency have referred to the Iraqi invasion, which was instigated by erroneous information from German agencies. Traditionally, most American policies give prominence to intelligence activities as opposed to counterintelligence. Existing laws governing civil liberties make it difficult for the director to establish policies and strategies that are in tandem and guarantee efficiency simultaneously. Research on past wars has revealed that victory was only achieved when intelligence and cou nterintelligence agencies combined forces. The effectiveness of the Britons in the course of the First World War was due to efficient double agents who supplied information on strategies used by adversaries. When these agencies work separately they present a weaker front, hence, they become easy targets for attack by adversaries, best illustrated during the twin bomb attacks on America in 2001 (Davies, 2002). Israel The Mossad shoulders all responsibilities for external state operations, like spying for intelligence, assassinations, and paramilitary engagements among others. It also shoulders responsibility for repatriation of Israeli nationals in foreign territories, in conjunction with the military intelligence and other bureaus (Godson, 2000). It was constituted in 1949 to enhance coordination between existing security forces, and was later moved to the premier’s office after it was restructured in 1951. Structure and Mandate In comparison to American systems, Israelis are better organized, with clearly defined leadership structures and established codes of conduct to oversee their operations. Previously, they had a policy of hiding the identity of their director. This was revoked after several botched operations in the 80s (Sims Gerber, 2009). It is widely believed that the agency has approximately 2500 agents, with the cast majority having served in the military. This is partly due to Israel’s policy of compulsory service, while others were recruited after being dispatched or their retirement from the military. Initially, their slogan for operation was drawn from the Bible, in the book of Proverbs, â€Å"Only with plenty wisdom should one engage in battle.† This was later changed to another text from the same book, â€Å"Without wisdom failure is guaranteed, but the abundance of wisdom guarantees safety.† This embodies the principles, beliefs and strategies of this agency, and their commitment to utilize every available resour ce in service to their nation (Godson, 2000). To ensure efficiency, agency operations have been split into divisions, with each section being tasked with a unique set of responsibilities. The largest of all departments, which also has connections abroad in their foreign missions both openly and under cover, is the collections department. It bears the duty execute surveillance operations abroad and internally. It has several desks, with each bearing responsibility for a geographical locality. This is done based on demarcations they have established for effectiveness. Every desk handles operations of officers in stations they preside over, and agents under their jurisdiction (Sims Gerber, 2009). A liaison department, which incorporates political action, also exists. This branch undertakes political actions, in collaboration with foreign intelligence bureaus. This is arrangement may also extend to nations which are hostile to Israelis, thereby lacking ambassadorial dealings. In large stations, the state commissioned two undercover agents under the embassy guise, with each attached either the collection or liaison department (Godson, 2000). Also, referred to as Metsada, a Special Operations Dissection is in existence. This wing is tasked with high-profile executions for political, economic and social security of the Israeli people. This section also performs sabotage and paramilitary undertakings (Godson, 2000). As has been noted before, their expertise may be called for in the course of psychological warfare operations. The Lohaman Psichlogit (LAP) segment is another section of the agency, which has a mandate that bears close semblance to that of the Metsada. It is mainly tasked with the execution of and oversight over psychological warfare. This is defined to include operations that require misinformation and trickery as part of the arsenal. It is mostly effective in distracting adversaries and luring them into traps, with the hope that they will reveal importa nt information or make a mistake that will expose their soft underbelly. The last major segment of the bureau is the research department. This wing is tasked with the assembly of intelligence. This is done at frequent intervals with compilations including daily succinct and weekly digests. The department also churns out meticulous monthly reports on various aspects of the known and unknown security concerns. The desk has also established special resource centers, with every one of them handling a specific region of particular interest to them. A nuclear desk has been created to deal with special weapons and those of mass destruction (Godson, 2000). The department of technology is in existence too. It is specifically charged with the responsibility of technological inventions and innovation to facilitate Mossad operations both locally and on the global front. Summary As can be deduced from the cases sighted afore, it is evident that both countries have adopted diverse approaches to a similar subject. The Israelis come across as more organized, with clearly defined hierarchical systems, as oppose to their American counterparts. Their set up allows the counterintelligence brigade to complement efforts of other service men. In the American case, the existence of over sixteen agencies, which are tasked with the same roles, is detrimental to their cause. As observed previously, there is a great tendency of inter-agency rivalry, which may compromise the integrity of several missions (Davies, 2002). Structurally, the Israeli model is better placed to achieve results on short notice as compared to the American system. This agency has a director who is accountable to the premier. Incase of threats, the onus is placed on these people to initiate counter measures. This enhances decision making, because it is easy for the two to find consensus. Americans have a model which is led by a director who is accountable to the president (Godson, 2000). Every agency has an independ ent director. Depending on the leadership level someone finds himself in, numerous councils exist, which should be summoned and allowed to deliberate before a stance is adopted. The resulting bureaucracy is also unhelpful, since it slows down the reflex action of agencies incase threats are detected. The whole process may suffer incase of misinformation by disgruntled agents. On the flip side, chances of making mistakes are greatly minimized, since a diverse perspective is represented during the deliberation sessions. The model American model allows ample time for research and other development oriented activities, because the high-level delegations are rarely called to attend to emergencies. Rather, they are briefed on the goings on at regular intervals (Davies, 2002). References Davies, P. H. J. (2002). Intelligence, information technology, and information warfare.  Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 36: 312 – 352. Godson, R. (2000). Dirty tricks or trum p cards: U.S. covert action counterintelligence. New Jersey: Transaction publishers. Sims, J. E. and Gerber, B. L. (2009). Vaults, mirrors, and masks: rediscovering U.S.  counterintelligence. Washington: Georgetown University Press. 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